Pharmacogenomics, Biomarkers & Forensic Chemistry

Digital forensic sciences includes several new topics like Digital evidence protection models, Digital forensic field guides, Digital forensic readiness management system, digital forensics services, Digital image forgery detection, Analysis of electronic signatures, Triage template pipeline models, Digital droplets-cloud computing, Digital forensic tools, Digital imaging and photography, Forensic Document Examination. In 2015, digital forensic sciences service segment is expected to make up about 50.0% of industry revenue. ABI Research calculates that total revenues for the global digital forensic science Market will reach US$2.7 billion by the end of 2015. With the increasing prevalence of mobile devices, forensic evidence extracted from mobile as well as other electronic devices is becoming an invaluable source of evidence for investigators. Digital forensic tools help in analyzing the various digital crimes.

Forensic accounting, forensic accountancy or financial forensics is the specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation. The topics that comes under this accounting are Regulations in forensic accounting, Statistical techniques for forensic accounting, Analysis of healthcare fraud which is used for the detection of fraud in health care companies, Fraud risk detection procedures in forensic accounting, Computerized accounting information system (cais). This industry provides services that apply accounting concepts and techniques to legal problems. Forensic accountants investigate and document financial fraud and white-collar crimes. The forensic accounting service Market contains a high number of suppliers and the top four service provider’s account for less than 30.0% of total Market revenue, indicating a low Market share concentration.

Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of anthropology and its several subfields, including Biological Anthropology (Physical) and Cultural Anthropology (Ethnology, Archaeology, Linguistics), in a legal setting. Its main significance includes disaster victim identification, other applications like Novel application of anthropometry, X-ray fluorescence and chemo metric analytical techniques in chemical anthropology, Virtual anthropology and forensic anthropology case reports. The U.S. Bureau of Labour Statistics (BLS) projected a 19% growth in employment for anthropologists and archaeologists from 2012 to 2022. Many universities approximately 10 universities in USA works under forensic anthropology, but private investigators are there under this.

Forensic DNA analysis (also called DNA testing or DNA typing) is a technique employed by forensic scientists to identify individuals by characteristics of their DNA. DNA profiles are a small set of DNA variations that are very likely to be different in all unrelated individuals. It is having good scope for the identification of the DNA of humans,  forensic DNA analysis includes various methods like Novel methods of extraction of DNA from weathered and ancient bone fragments, Novel methods of purification of crime scene DNA analysis, the DNA identification techniques includes ABO typing and str testing for forensic DNA analysis, Forensic mitochondrial DNA data analysis, Forensic analysis using portable analyzers Efficient methods for recovery of high quality DNA and RNA in forensic analysis.

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property, bridge damage evaluations. It had a wider scope in the fields of Accident reconstruction, Human factors assessment in structural failures. The new technologies developed under forensic engineering are chemical engineering investigation analysis, finger print silicone engineering, forensic evaluation using ultrasonic and radar echo techniques. BCC estimates that total sales of forensic products and services were nearly $10.1 billion in 2010 and that sales will grow at a 9.4% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) through 2017 to more than $17 billion.

Forensic geophysics also called forensic geology is the study, the search, the localization and the mapping of buried objects or elements beneath the soil or the water, using geophysics tools for legal purposes. Forensic archaeology will also come under this department in which archaeological methods are applied to forensic – crime scene – work. Various sub topics includes Analysis of heavy metals and heavy mineral compositions, applications of paleontology for investigations, advanced techniques for soil forensic examinations, geochemical and isotopic tracers, seismology and nuclear tests.

Forensic pathology is a sub-specialty of pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse. The autopsy is performed by a medical examiner, usually during the investigation of criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions. This includes forensic autopsy- case studies, determination of post-mortem interval, MRNA analysis of death investigations, forensic veterinary pathology (application of veterinary medicine to the forensic sciences), and implications in forensic pathology and post mortem interval analysis.

Forensic psychiatry is a sub-specialty of psychiatry and is related to criminology. It encompasses the interface between law and psychiatry. A forensic psychiatrist provides services – such as determination of competency to stand trial – to a court of law to facilitate the adjudicative process and provide treatment like medications and psychotherapy to criminals. This topic has the wide scope which includes behavioral forensic science, criminological studies, recent advancements and techniques in criminal psychology, case studies, and ethical issues in forensic psychology, personality disorders, and recent developments in forensic psychiatry. Around 15 universities are there particularly in North America.

Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. Forensic toxicology includes various identification techniques for drugs and toxic substances. It includes method development analysis and of cannabinoids, challenges in forensic toxicology, includes various analytical techniques like GC-MS. Many research labs and universities are present. Most of the techniques come under pharmacy techniques.

Forensic nursing practice is "application of nursing science to public or legal proceedings." Forensic nurses investigate real and potential causes of morbidity and mortality in a variety of settings. Forensic Nursing Care responsibilities range from collecting evidence from perpetrators and survivors of violent crime to testifying in court as a fact witness (someone who saw a situation first hand) or an expert witness (someone who offers an opinion of a particular situation). Forensic nurses understand evidence collection, such as forensic photography, for subsequent legal and civil proceedings and are the "bridge between the criminal justice system and the health care system." Skills of the forensic nurse include but are not limited to: observation, documentation, and preservation of evidence, all critical in determining the legal outcome of violent crimes. The largest subspecialty of forensic nursing is sexual assault, closely followed by death investigation, forensic psychiatric nursing and medical-legal consulting.

Wildlife forensic science is science that is applied to legal questions involving wildlife. Involves wild life poisoning, advanced wild life forensic techniques, applications of DNA bar-coding in wildlife forensics, animal crime investigation-case studies. Less research is going on under this title.

Forensic Serology is the detection, classification and study of various bodily fluids such as blood, semen, fecal matter and perspiration, and their relationship to a crime scene. A forensic serologist may also be involved in DNA analysis and bloodstain pattern analysis.it may involve in DNA analysis and bloodstain pattern analysis. A forensic serologist’s functions involve the determination of the type and characteristics of blood, blood testing, bloodstain examination, and preparation of testimony or presentations at trial. S/he analyzes semen, saliva, other body fluids and may or may not be involved with DNA typing.

Fingerprints can be left on almost any physical objects or surfaces and when left in the right conditions they can remain there for several years. Each fingerprint is unique to an individual and no two fingerprints have ever been found to be the same. Even identical twins who share similar DNA genetics will have different fingerprints. When analyzing fingerprints each contains patterns that allow them to be classified and distinguished from one and other. Common uses of fingerprint analysis are to help identify an unknown victim, witness, or suspect in a criminal investigation. Fingerprint analysis is also used to verify records and most importantly provide links between a suspect and a crime.

Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes. Most often this means using clues from plants in order to aid in the solution of serious crimes such as murder, kidnapping, and the cause of death of a victim. Many aspects of plant science are employed, including plant anatomy, the study of plants cells; plant taxonomy, which deals with the identification of plants; plant systematics, focusing on plant relationships to other plants; plant ecology, which deals with plants and their environments; and palynology, which is the scientific study of plant pollen and spores.

Mycology is used in estimating times or death or events by using known growth rates of fungi, in providing trace evidence, and in locating corpses. Forensic mycology is the use of mycology in criminal investigations. It is the most important part of forensic which helps to understand the investigation through various ways. Mycology can contribute to a variety of forensic investigations, including the determination of postmortem intervals from mold growth on corpses, psychoactive substances and toxins, hazards from mold growth in buildings, and providing trace evidence linking people and objects with places. Studies are also starting to be undertaken to explore the use of molecular data on fungi in the characterization of soils. In addition, where there are health concerns, possibly associated with mold growth in buildings, guidance is presented with respect to the collection of samples, and some caveats are given which must be considered in interpretation of data. Attention is drawn to pertinent publications which either appeared, or came to the attention of the authors, since the review they prepared in 2010.

Clinical forensic medicine refers to a branch of forensic medicine that involves an evaluation and interpretation of injuries and illness in living individuals. Clinical forensic medicine is principally concerned with the provision of forensic medical services to the living patients and medical advice particularly in the investigation of crimes. However, there are doctors, worldwide, who are involved in both the clinical and the pathological aspects of forensic medicine.

Forensic Dentistry deals with the collection, evaluation and proper handling of dental evidence in order to assist law enforcement officers and in civil / criminal proceedings. The role of such an expert is to identify bodies and skeletal remains from dental records, reconstruct faces from skulls as well as connect the crime scene with whatever little evidence is available from the scene

Forensic dentistry (odontology) is a vital branch of forensic science that involves the application of dental knowledge, primarily for the identification of human remains.

Radiological methods are widely used in identification, age estimation and establishing cause of death. Comparison of antemortem and postmortem radiographs is one of the means of identification. The scanning of baggage, vehicles, and individuals have many applications.
Forensic radiology is the discipline which comprises the performance, interpretation, and reportage of the radiological examinations and procedures which are needed in court procedures or law enforcement.